Paganism: An Exploration of Ancient Roots, Historical Trajectories, and Contemporary Expressions

I. Understanding Paganism: A Complex Tapestry

The term “Paganism” encompasses a vast and diverse array of spiritual and religious traditions that have existed throughout history and continue to evolve in the contemporary world. Understanding its origins, historical applications, and the core characteristics of both ancient and modern forms is essential to appreciating its complexity. The very definition of “Paganism” has been contested and has shifted significantly over time, often reflecting the perspectives of those outside these traditions.

A. Defining the Elusive: Etymology and Historical Usage of “Pagan”

The word “pagan” traces its origins to the Latin term paganus. Initially, paganus carried geographical and social connotations, meaning “rural,” “rustic,” or “country dweller,” and later, “civilian” as distinct from a soldier.¹ This etymology is crucial because it reveals that the term was not inherently religious in its earliest usage. However, a significant transformation occurred in the fourth century CE when early Christians began to employ paganus to describe populations within the Roman Empire who adhered to polytheistic beliefs or local ethnic religions distinct from Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism.¹ This semantic shift marked the term’s evolution into a religious designator. The implication was often that those residing in rural districts (pagi) were slower to adopt Christianity, which initially found stronger footing in urban centers, thus associating “pagan” with perceived backwardness or resistance to the new dominant faith.³

Historically, the application of “pagan” broadened considerably. It was used to define, often pejoratively, anyone engaged in religious acts, practices, or ceremonies not aligned with Christian doctrine.⁴ More specifically, it denoted followers of polytheistic religions, particularly those of ancient Greece and Rome, becoming largely synonymous with “heathen”.³ This historical usage demonstrates the power inherent in labeling. The evolution of “pagan” from a neutral term to a religious pejorative illustrates how dominant religious groups can utilize language to define, categorize, and frequently marginalize pre-existing or minority belief systems. The term became a tool for “othering,” creating a clear distinction between the Christian “us” and the pagan “them,” thereby reinforcing Christian identity by defining what it was not. Consequently, much of the historical understanding of “Paganism” has been filtered through the lens of those who sought to supplant these ancient traditions.

In contemporary discourse, the term “pagan” has undergone another transformation. It is now most commonly used, and often self-applied, by practitioners of modern, nature-based, and polytheistic spiritual paths, such as Wicca, Druidry, and Heathenry, making it largely synonymous with “Neopagan”.³ This modern self-application represents a significant act of reclamation. By consciously choosing to identify as “Pagan,” contemporary adherents reverse centuries of historical stigmatization, taking a term once used to denote an “outsider” or “false believer” and imbuing it with positive self-identity and a connection to pre-Christian spiritual heritages. This act challenges the historical narrative imposed by dominant religions and asserts the validity and legitimacy of these revived or reconstructed spiritual paths. It is a linguistic and cultural reclaiming of heritage, a conscious effort within Modern Paganism to redefine its identity on its own terms. It is important to acknowledge, as scholars point out, that until the 20th century, individuals and groups practicing these diverse, non-Abrahamic religions did not typically self-identify as “pagans”; the overarching concept of “Paganism” as a unified category was largely a construct of the early Christian Church.²

B. Ancient Roots: Core Characteristics of Pre-Christian Belief Systems

While ancient pre-Christian belief systems were incredibly diverse, varying significantly by culture and geography, several core characteristics can be identified that provide a foundational understanding of their general nature.

A central feature of most ancient paganisms was polytheism, the belief in and worship of multiple gods and goddesses.⁴ These deities often formed complex pantheons, such as the Olympians in Greece or the Ennead in Egypt, with each divinity possessing distinct personalities, roles, domains, and often, intricate familial relationships.⁷ These divine hierarchies and relationships frequently mirrored human social structures and power dynamics. Deities were commonly anthropomorphic, conceived with human-like qualities, emotions, and physical appearances, which allowed for a more personal and relatable connection between humans and the divine.⁷ Some pantheons featured a supreme deity or a ruling council, like Zeus among the Greeks or Ra in Egypt.⁷ This anthropomorphism and the concept of exchange (e.g., offerings for divine favor, as seen in Greek votive practices ⁹) suggest a pragmatic and relational approach to divinity. Deities were not merely abstract principles but active agents with whom humans could negotiate and interact, often for tangible outcomes related to daily life and survival. This contrasts significantly with some later monotheistic conceptions of an omnipotent and inscrutable God, indicating that ancient pagan spirituality was deeply embedded in the practicalities of existence.

Nature veneration was another pervasive characteristic. There was a profound reverence for the natural world, with natural forces and phenomena—such as the sun, moon, earth, sky, storms, mountains, rivers, and trees—often personified as deities or regarded as being imbued with sacred power and spirits.⁴ The “spirit of place,” or genius loci, was widely recognized, and specific natural locations were often deemed holy.⁶ This reverence was not simply an aesthetic appreciation but a fundamental spiritual understanding of interconnectedness and dependence on the natural world for both sustenance and meaning. The identification of natural forces as divinities ⁸ and the widespread celebration of seasonal cycles ⁶ indicate that the sacred was not perceived as separate from the material world but as inherent within it. This suggests an early form of ecological consciousness where human well-being was inextricably linked to the health and respect of the environment, a concept that profoundly informs how many modern Pagans draw upon these ancient roots for contemporary environmental ethics.

Ritual and sacrifice were primary modes of interaction with the divine. These practices included prayers, diverse offerings (such as food, drink, and valuables), and sacrifices, which most commonly involved animals and, in some cultures and specific contexts, rarely humans.⁷ Such rituals were performed to honor and communicate with deities, maintain cosmic order, appease divine anger, or seek favor and blessings. These rites were typically conducted by designated priests or priestesses who acted as intermediaries, often within sacred spaces such as purpose-built temples and sanctuaries, or at natural sites like sacred groves, springs, or mountaintops.⁷

Many ancient pagan traditions held a cyclical view of time, rather than a strictly linear one. This was often reflected in their seasonal festivals, which marked the turning of the year, and in myths concerning death, rebirth, and renewal.⁶ The divine was frequently perceived as immanent within the world, directly present and active in nature and human affairs, rather than being solely transcendent or remote.¹⁰

A key feature of ancient paganisms was their diversity and lack of centralized doctrine. Unlike many later monotheistic religions, they generally did not possess a single, unifying sacred scripture, a universally accepted creed, or a centralized hierarchical authority.² Beliefs, myths, and ritual practices were often transmitted orally and varied considerably by culture, region, and even locality.⁷ This diversity and the absence of rigid dogma highlight the challenge of applying modern, often Abrahamic-centric, definitions of “religion” to these ancient systems. If “religion” is primarily defined by characteristics such as holy books, unified creeds, and overarching ecclesiastical structures, then many historical paganisms might not fit neatly into such a category. This suggests that our understanding of “religion” itself needs to be broadened to appreciate the varied ways humans have engaged with the sacred. For many ancient pagan traditions, orthopraxy (correct practice and ritual observance) may have held greater importance than orthodoxy (correct or uniform belief).

Finally, religion in ancient pagan societies was often deeply intertwined with the community and the maintenance of cosmic order. Religious practices were not merely private concerns but were integral to social structures, political legitimacy, legal systems, and the perceived balance of the cosmos, as exemplified by the concept of Ma’at in ancient Egypt.⁷

C. The Great Divide: Distinguishing Historical Paganism from Modern Neopaganism

A crucial distinction must be made between historical Paganism and the contemporary religious movement known as Modern Paganism or Neopaganism. While related by inspiration and shared terminology, they are distinct phenomena separated by centuries and significant cultural shifts.

Historical Paganism refers to the original, pre-Christian, indigenous, and ethnic religions that were practiced by specific cultures and in particular geographical regions, such as those of ancient Greece, Rome, the Celtic peoples, and the Norse, among others.⁴ These religions were often deeply embedded within the social, political, and cultural fabric of their respective societies, frequently serving as the dominant religious framework.

Modern Paganism (Neopaganism), in contrast, is a contemporary religious movement that primarily emerged and gained visibility in the 19th and, more substantially, the 20th century.² Neopagan traditions draw inspiration from, attempt to reconstruct, or seek to revive aspects of historical pagan beliefs, mythologies, and practices. However, Neopaganism is generally not considered a direct, unbroken continuation of these ancient traditions.⁵ While it is “loosely based on the religions of the ancient world” ¹⁰, it also integrates modern intellectual currents, ethical considerations (such as environmentalism and feminism), and often highly individualistic approaches to spirituality.⁴ Some authors use the term “Neo-Pagan” to describe all those who are recognizably Pagan but do not adhere strictly to any single ancient tradition per se.⁶

The relationship between Neopaganism and its historical antecedents is not monolithic; it exists on a spectrum. Some paths, particularly within reconstructionist movements ¹⁷, strive for a high degree of historical accuracy in reviving ancient practices. Others focus on capturing the spirit or essence of older traditions, while many involve a significant degree of re-imagination, eclecticism, and adaptation to fit contemporary contexts and concerns.⁵ This internal diversity in approaching historical sources is a key characteristic of the Neopagan landscape.

Furthermore, Modern Paganism is inherently shaped by the intellectual and cultural environment of modernity. Values such as individualism (the idea that the responsibility for one’s beliefs is personal ⁴), feminism, environmental consciousness, and the globalized access to information (notably through the internet) are significant influences that were not primary drivers or contexts for most historical paganisms.⁴ Neopaganism is not simply a “return” to the past but a modern religious creation that responds to contemporary concerns and utilizes modern modes of thought, organization, and communication.

The distinction between historical and modern Paganism often gives rise to internal and external discussions about “authenticity.” What it means to authentically practice a revived or reconstructed religion is a complex question. The claim by some modern Pagans that they are directly continuing extinct religions ¹⁸ stands in contrast to the more common scholarly view of Neopaganism as a new religious movement inspired by, but distinct from, the past.¹⁷ The use of terms like “Paleo-paganism” (referring to original, undisturbed pagan cultures) versus “Neo-paganism” (referring to modern revivalist attempts) ⁴ is one way these differences are conceptualized. This ongoing dialogue about authenticity, lineage, and interpretation is a significant dynamic within the Neopagan community and in its academic study.

Finally, the contextual settings are vastly different. Historical paganisms were often the dominant, state-sanctioned, or culturally normative religious frameworks of their time. In contrast, Neopaganism generally exists as a minority religion, often operating within societies that are predominantly secular or dominated by one of the major monotheistic faiths. This profoundly affects its forms of expression, community structures, public visibility, and its relationship with the wider culture.

II. Ancient Pagan Traditions: A Global Heritage

The ancient world was home to a breathtaking diversity of pagan traditions, each deeply interwoven with the culture, landscape, and worldview of the people who practiced them. This section explores several prominent examples from different regions, outlining their key deities, characteristic rituals, core beliefs, and unique socio-cultural features. Examining these traditions reveals not only their distinctiveness but also certain recurring themes in human religious expression before the widespread rise of global monotheistic systems.

A. Echoes of Olympus and Rome: Greco-Roman Polytheism

The pagan traditions of ancient Greece and Rome, while distinct, shared many commonalities, particularly due to Rome’s significant cultural and religious borrowing from Greece. Together, they form a cornerstone of Western classical heritage and offer profound insights into polytheistic worldviews.

Ancient Greek Pantheon and Beliefs:

The ancient Greeks worshipped a vibrant pantheon, at the apex of which were the twelve principal Olympian deities: Zeus (king of the gods, sky, thunder), Hera (queen of the gods, marriage), Poseidon (sea, earthquakes), Hades (underworld), Athena (wisdom, warfare, crafts), Apollo (music, prophecy, healing, light), Artemis (hunt, wilderness, childbirth), Aphrodite (love, beauty), Ares (war, bloodshed), Hephaistos (fire, metalworking, crafts), Hermes (messenger, trade, thieves), and Dionysos (wine, ecstasy, theatre).7 Each deity possessed a distinct personality, domain, and iconography, with intricate myths detailing their origins, relationships, and interactions with humankind.9 Mount Olympus was considered their mythical abode.9

Greek religious practice was fundamentally conservative, with many observances tracing their roots to the Bronze Age (3000–1050 BCE) or even earlier.⁹ Unlike later scriptural religions, there was no single, authoritative sacred text akin to a bible or qur’an.⁹ The relationship between humans and deities was conceived as one of exchange (do ut des, “I give so that you might give”): gods and goddesses were expected to bestow gifts and favor in return for proper worship and offerings.⁹ Votive offerings, discovered in their thousands at sanctuaries, served as tangible expressions of gratitude or supplication from individual worshippers.⁹ Concepts like Fate (Moira) and the pronouncements of oracles, most famously the Oracle of Delphi dedicated to Apollo, played significant roles in shaping understanding and action.⁷

Greek Rituals and Sacred Spaces:

Worship primarily occurred in sanctuaries (temenos), which were well-defined sacred precincts, often enclosed by a wall. These could be located within cities or in the countryside, depending on the nature of the deity.9 A typical sanctuary included a temple housing a monumental cult image of the deity, an outdoor altar (where most public rituals took place), statues, votive offerings, and often sacred natural features like trees or springs.9

The central ritual act was animal sacrifice, predominantly of oxen, goats, and sheep. These sacrifices were public events, taking place within the sanctuary, usually at the altar before the temple. The assembled participants would consume the cooked meat of the victim, reinforcing communal bonds.⁹ Liquid offerings, or libations (of wine, milk, honey, or water), were also commonly made.⁹ The year was punctuated by numerous religious festivals, which were essentially feast days. The four most famous were the Panhellenic festivals—held at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and Isthmia—which included processions, athletic competitions (like the Olympic Games), and sacrifices, drawing participants from across the Greek-speaking world.⁹ Additionally, mystery cults, such as the Eleusinian Mysteries dedicated to Demeter and Persephone, offered initiates personal experiences of the divine and promises of a blessed afterlife, distinct from public civic religion.⁹

Roman Religion and Beliefs (Religio Romana):

Roman religion, while developing its own unique characteristics, heavily adapted Greek deities and mythology, often giving Greek gods Roman names: Jupiter for Zeus, Juno for Hera, Mars for Ares, Venus for Aphrodite, Minerva for Athena, and so on.7 The Capitoline Triad—Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva—whose temple stood on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, was particularly central to state religion.19 Roman religion was highly practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des. The emphasis was on the correct performance of rituals (religio) rather than on personal faith or dogma.19 Even skeptical elites, like Cicero, viewed religion as a vital source of social order and stability. There was a pervasive belief in a divinely ordered destiny for Rome, and as the Empire expanded, it generally adopted a policy of absorbing the deities and cults of conquered peoples rather than eradicating them, believing this promoted social stability.19

Household worship was crucial, with families honoring domestic deities such as the Lares (guardian spirits of the household) and Penates (spirits of the pantry or storeroom), as well as the genius (tutelary spirit) of the paterfamilias.¹⁹ Ancestor worship, through the veneration of the di Manes (spirits of the dead), was also important.¹⁹ Romans were wary of superstitio, which referred to excessive, improper, or fear-driven devotion that deviated from established religious norms.¹⁹

Roman Rituals and Priesthood:

Public religious ceremonies often took place outdoors and frequently involved processions to temples or shrines.19 Prayers (prex), vows (votum), and oaths (sacramentum) were fundamental religious actions, requiring precise verbal formulas for efficacy. A mistake in a public ritual could necessitate repeating the entire ceremony.19

Sacrifice (sacrificium) was a key ritual intended to render something sacred and reinforce the powers of divine beings, inclining them to provide benefits in return.¹⁹ Animal sacrifice was the most potent offering, typically involving domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, and pigs. Specific rules governed sacrifices, such as the color of the victim and whether it was offered to celestial gods (di superi) or underworld deities (di inferi).¹⁹ The examination of the entrails (exta) of sacrificed animals by haruspices was a critical form of divination to ascertain divine approval (litatio).¹⁹

Roman religion was largely state-controlled, with various priestly colleges (e.g., Pontiffs, Augurs, Vestal Virgins) overseeing religious law and rituals. Augury, the interpretation of divine will through signs like bird flights or thunder, was essential before any major state undertaking.¹⁹ As in Greece, mystery cults offering more personal religious experiences, such as those of Isis, Mithras, and Cybele, gained considerable popularity, especially during the Imperial period.¹⁹ A distinctive Roman development was the Imperial Cult, which involved the worship of the emperor’s genius during his lifetime and the deification of deceased emperors who were deemed worthy, providing a common religious focus across the diverse Empire.¹⁹

The deep integration of religion into the civic and political infrastructure of both the Greek polis and the Roman Empire is a striking feature. Rituals, priesthoods, and divine sanctions were not peripheral but central to governance, law, warfare, and social cohesion.⁹ The well-being of the state was perceived as directly dependent on the correct observance of religious rites, making religion a public duty rather than solely a matter of private belief. The later concept of a “separation of church and state” would have been largely alien to these ancient societies.

Rome’s practice of absorbing and adapting Greek deities, and subsequently those from other conquered territories, illustrates a complex dynamic of cultural exchange, syncretism, and what might be termed religious imperialism.⁷ While appearing tolerant by incorporating foreign gods, this process also served to integrate diverse populations into the Roman imperial system under a Romanized religious framework, suggesting that religious syncretism can function as both a means of cultural enrichment and an instrument of soft power.

Despite the prominence of public, state-sanctioned rituals, the flourishing of mystery cults in both Greece and Rome points to a concurrent and growing desire among individuals for more personal, experiential, and salvific forms of religious engagement.⁹ These cults, often promising esoteric knowledge, personal transformation, and a more favorable afterlife, catered to spiritual needs not always fully addressed by the grand scale of civic religion, indicating a parallel religious economy where personal spiritual quests coexisted with, and sometimes sought alternatives to, the demands of state-mandated piety.

B. Whispers of the Sacred Groves: Celtic Paganism

The term “Celtic” refers to a diverse group of peoples who shared related languages and cultural traits across much of Europe, from Ireland and Britain to Gaul, Iberia, and parts of Central and Eastern Europe, particularly during the Iron Age. Their religious beliefs and practices, while exhibiting regional variations, possessed an underlying homogeneity.¹³ Our understanding of Celtic paganism is drawn from archaeological evidence, accounts by Greco-Roman writers (which must be read critically due to potential bias), and later vernacular literature from Christianized Celtic regions like Ireland and Wales.

Deities:

Celtic religion was polytheistic, featuring a wide array of gods and goddesses.13 Some deities were pan-regional, while others were specific to particular tribes or locales. Prominent gods included Lugus (a versatile god associated with skills, crafts, and perhaps sovereignty, cognate with Irish Lugh), Toutatis (often interpreted as “god of the tribe,” possibly a protective father deity and god of the dead), Taranis (a thunder god, often depicted with a wheel), Cernunnos (a horned god associated with animals, forests, and fertility/wealth), Belenos (a bright, solar deity linked to healing), and Sucellos (a god with a hammer or mallet, possibly associated with agriculture or the underworld).13

Goddesses played vital roles, often as mother goddesses (such as Matrona or the Matres/Matronae, often depicted in trios) associated with the land, earth, fertility, and sovereignty.¹³ Some goddesses also had warrior aspects, like Andraste, invoked by Boudica.¹³ Epona, the horse goddess, was widely venerated, particularly in Gaul and by Roman cavalry. Triplicity was a common theme in Celtic iconography and mythology, with deities frequently appearing in threes, such as the Three Mothers.¹³ Sacred springs were often associated with healing deities, like Sirona and Borvo.¹³

Druids, Bards, and Vates:

Classical authors, notably Poseidonius (via writers like Strabo and Caesar), describe three specialized classes that managed religious and cultural knowledge among the Gauls: the Druids, the Bards, and the Vates (seers or diviners).20 This tripartite division finds parallels in Insular Celtic societies, particularly Ireland, with its Druids, Filidh (poet-seers, corresponding to Vates), and Bards.

The Druids (whose name may mean “knowing the oak tree” or “strong seer”) were the priestly class, but their functions extended far beyond ritual.²⁰ They served as judges, teachers, philosophers, astronomers, and advisors to rulers. Caesar noted their exemption from military service and taxation, privileges that attracted many to their order.²⁰ Their training was arduous, involving the memorization of vast amounts of lore, sometimes for up to twenty years, as they believed it wrong to commit their sacred knowledge to writing, though they used Greek script for mundane purposes.²⁰ They taught doctrines such as the transmigration of souls (reincarnation) and discoursed on the nature and power of the gods.²⁰ The Druids’ extensive control over knowledge, justice, and religious rites effectively made them the intellectual and spiritual elite, wielding considerable societal influence. Their later suppression by Roman and Christian authorities was likely a strategic move to dismantle the core of Celtic societal structure and resistance.

Sacred Spaces and Rituals:

Early Celtic worship often took place in natural sanctuaries called nemeta (singular nemeton), which were typically sacred groves, clearings in forests, or areas around specific natural features like springs or lakes.13 Purpose-built temples were not common until the Gallo-Roman period, when Romano-Celtic temple architecture (fanum) emerged, often built on older sacred sites.13

Votive offerings were a significant ritual practice. Celts deposited a wide range of items—weapons, tools, jewelry, cauldrons, coins, and even human remains—in watery places (rivers, lakes, bogs), ritual shafts, and wells.¹³ These offerings were made to deities, perhaps as payment for favors, for thanksgiving, or to remove potent objects from the mundane world.

Animal sacrifice was commonly practiced, usually involving livestock such as cattle, pigs, sheep, and horses, as well as dogs.¹³ Sacrifices could be for thanksgiving, appeasement, seeking good fortune, fertility, or for divination.¹³

The issue of human sacrifice is more contentious. Greco-Roman writers like Caesar, Strabo, and Tacitus describe various forms of Celtic human sacrifice, including the burning of victims in large wicker figures (the “wicker man”).¹³ While these accounts may contain elements of propaganda intended to portray Celts as barbaric and justify Roman conquest, some archaeological evidence, such as ritually killed “bog bodies” in Northern Europe and specific burial patterns, suggests that human sacrifice did occur in certain contexts, perhaps involving criminals, captives, or individuals chosen for specific ritual purposes.¹³ Human sacrifice was reportedly forbidden under Roman rule.²⁰

A notable feature of Celtic religion appears to have been a “head cult”.¹³ The human head was considered highly significant, possibly as the seat of the soul, consciousness, and life force. Celts were known as head-hunters, and severed heads were sometimes displayed as trophies, at sanctuary entrances, or even preserved.¹³ The head is a recurring motif in Celtic art and mythology, with tales of “living heads” that could speak or prophesy.

Beliefs:

The Celts believed in life after death, as evidenced by the inclusion of grave goods—food, weapons, ornaments, chariots—with the dead, presumably for use in the next world.13 Insular Celtic traditions, particularly Irish mythology, preserve rich accounts of an Otherworld. This realm was not typically a place of punishment but a supernatural domain existing parallel to the human world, sometimes imagined as underground, as islands in the western sea, or accessible through special portals like caves or mounds (sídhe).20 Names for the Otherworld included “Land of the Living,” “Delightful Plain,” and “Land of the Young,” a place free from sickness, old age, and death, where happiness was eternal.20 However, it was not universally accessible; some traditions spoke of Tech Duinn (“House of Donn”), ruled by Donn, a god of the dead, to which most mortals returned.20 The concept of the Otherworld, sacred groves, and animistic beliefs 13 (the idea that natural elements possess spirits) suggest a worldview where the boundary between the mundane and the magical, the natural and the supernatural, was highly permeable and constantly interacting. The sacred was immanent and accessible within the landscape itself.

Festivals (Insular Celtic Tradition):

The Irish year was structured around four major seasonal festivals:

• Samhain (around November 1st): Marking the end of summer and the harvest, the beginning of the “darker half” of the year. It was a liminal time when the veil between worlds was thin, spirits and fairies were active, and divination was practiced. It was a precursor to modern Halloween.²⁰
• Imbolc (around February 1st): Associated with the first stirrings of spring, lactation of ewes (oímelc meaning “sheep milk”), purification, and the goddess Brighid.²⁰
• Beltane (around May 1st): Marking the beginning of summer, the “brighter half” of the year. It was a festival of fire (“Fire of Bel”), fertility, and growth. Cattle were traditionally driven between two bonfires for purification and protection.²⁰
• Lughnasadh (around August 1st): A harvest festival dedicated to the god Lugh, celebrating the first fruits and often involving games, fairs, and trial marriages.²⁰

The interpretation of practices like human sacrifice and the head cult remains challenging, often filtered through potentially biased external accounts or requiring careful archaeological analysis. Understanding these ancient practices requires acknowledging the interpretive layers and avoiding anachronistic judgments or sensationalism.

C. The Call of the North: Norse and Germanic Heathenry

Norse and Germanic Heathenry encompasses the pre-Christian religious beliefs and practices of the Scandinavian and other Germanic-speaking peoples of Northern Europe, particularly prominent during the Viking Age (roughly 8th to 11th centuries CE). This spiritual tradition, characterized by a robust mythology and a strong emphasis on honor and action, has experienced a significant revival in modern times as Ásatrú or Heathenry.

Deities:

Norse religion was polytheistic, featuring a complex pantheon divided primarily into two tribes of gods: the Æsir and the Vanir, who eventually made peace and intermingled. Key deities included 21:

• Odin (Woden/Wotan): The Allfather, chief of the Æsir, associated with wisdom, poetry, war, death, magic (especially runes), and ecstasy. He sacrificed an eye for wisdom and hung himself on Yggdrasil to gain knowledge of the runes.
• Thor (Donar/Thunor): God of thunder, strength, protection of mankind (Midgard), and consecration. Wielder of the hammer Mjölnir.
• Freyja: A Vanir goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, sexuality, gold, war, and a form of magic called seiðr. She chose half of the slain warriors for her hall, Fólkvangr.
• Freyr: Freyja’s twin brother, a Vanir god of fertility, prosperity, peace, and sunshine.
• Frigg: Odin’s wife, foremost among goddesses, associated with foresight, wisdom, marriage, and motherhood.
• Týr (Tiwaz): An ancient god of war and justice, known for sacrificing his hand to bind the wolf Fenrir.
• Loki: A complex and ambiguous figure, a trickster god, sometimes an ally of the Æsir, sometimes their adversary, and father of monstrous beings.
• Heimdallr: Guardian of the Bifröst bridge, possessing keen sight and hearing.
• Njord: A Vanir god of the sea, seafaring, wind, fishing, wealth, and fertility. Other significant beings included giants (jötnar), elves (álfar), dwarves (dvergar), and Norns (female beings who ruled the destiny of gods and men). Many Heathens believe in an underlying divine energy or essence that expresses itself through these diverse Gods and Goddesses.²⁴

Core Tenets and Beliefs:

A central principle in Norse Heathenry is the Gifting Cycle.21 This is the idea that relationships—between humans, and between humans and gods, ancestors, and land spirits (landvættir)—are built and maintained through reciprocal exchange. Giving gifts, including offerings and sacrifices, was done not out of subservience but to foster mutual respect, honor, and obligation, embodying the principle of “a gift for a gift” (do ut des). This concept suggests a universe perceived as a web of interconnected relationships maintained through mutual obligation, where both gods and humans have roles in upholding cosmic harmony.

Norse thought included a strong concept of Wyrd (Fate) and Örlög (individual destiny, laid down by the Norns). While fate was a powerful force, personal action, honor, and courage in the face of it were highly valued. The saying “We are our deeds” ²³ encapsulates the emphasis on one’s actions and reputation in this life.

There was no concept of original sin; humans were not seen as inherently tainted or evil.²⁴ Virtues held in high regard included strength, courage, joy, honor, freedom, loyalty to kin, realism, vigor, and reverence for ancestors.²⁴ These active and assertive virtues, along with deities like Thor (the protector) and Odin (the warrior and wisdom-seeker), suggest a worldview that acknowledged and even embraced life’s challenges, valuing resilience and heroic action rather than seeking escape from worldly concerns.

Afterlife beliefs were varied. Warriors who died bravely might go to Valhalla (Odin’s hall) or Fólkvangr (Freyja’s field).²⁴ Others went to Hel, a realm ruled by the goddess of the same name, which was not necessarily a place of punishment for all but rather a general abode of the dead. A virtuous life was believed to lead to continued fulfillment, while a life of vice could lead to separation from kin and a gloomy existence.²⁴ There was also a tradition of rebirth within the family line.²⁴

Rituals and Practices:

The primary religious ritual was the Blót, a sacrifice made to the gods, spirits, or ancestors.21 Historically, this often involved the ritual slaughter of animals (cattle, horses, pigs), with the blood sprinkled on participants and altars, and the meat consumed in a communal feast. In modern practice, offerings are more commonly food, alcoholic beverages (especially mead or ale), or symbolic items. The purpose of the Blót was to make the offering holy and strengthen the bond with the divine.

The Symbel (or Sumbel) was another important ritual, a ceremonial drinking gathering typically held after a feast.²¹ Participants would pass a drinking horn, making toasts, oaths, boasts, or honoring gods and ancestors. The Symbel served to reinforce community bonds, shared values, and collective memory. Both Symbel and communal feasting highlight that Norse Paganism was deeply embedded in social structures and collective identity, a characteristic that informs modern Heathenry’s emphasis on building “kindreds” or communities.

Prayer could be both formal and informal, structured around invocation, expressing requests or gratitude, making an offering, and a closing statement.²¹ Individual devotional practices might include fasting, physical feats, creating poetry or crafts dedicated to specific deities.²¹

Funerary practices often involved cremation, with the belief that the smoke would carry the deceased’s spirit to the afterlife.²² Ship burials, where high-status individuals were interred in a ship with rich grave goods, were also practiced, symbolizing the journey to the next world.²² Grave goods were considered essential for the deceased in the afterlife.

Seasonal celebrations and holidays marked the turning of the year. Key festivals included Yule (Midwinter/Winter Solstice), Sigrblót (Victory Blót, around the Spring Equinox, marking the beginning of summer/sailing season), and Vetrnætr (Winter Nights, around the Autumn Equinox, marking the start of winter).²¹ Other observed holidays in modern Heathenry include Disting, Ostara (Spring Equinox), May Day, Midsummer, and Lammas/Freyfaxi (Harvest).²¹

Sacred Texts and Lore:

Norse Heathenry does not have a single, divinely revealed “holy book.” Instead, practitioners draw inspiration and knowledge from a body of historical and mythological texts known as the “Lore.” These include the Poetic Edda (a collection of Old Norse poems), the Prose Edda (written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, which systematized Norse mythology), various sagas (heroic and family histories), and runic inscriptions.23

D. Between Forest and Steppe: Slavic Pagan Traditions

Slavic paganism refers to the pre-Christian religious beliefs and practices of the Slavic peoples who inhabited a vast area of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. Knowledge of these traditions is primarily derived from medieval Christian chronicles (often hostile), archaeological findings, folklore, and linguistic analysis, as the Slavs themselves left few, if any, written records of their indigenous religion.

Deities:

Slavic religion was polytheistic, with a pantheon that likely varied regionally but shared some common figures. Key deities included 25:

• Perun: A prominent god of thunder, lightning, storms, and possibly war. He was often considered the head of the pantheon, especially among East Slavs, and is associated with the oak tree and high places.
• Veles (Volos): A complex chthonic deity associated with the underworld, waters, earth, cattle, wealth, magic, and poetry. He was often seen as Perun’s adversary or counterpart, dwelling in the lowlands or at the roots of the World Tree. The dynamic interplay between the celestial Perun and the earthly/underworldly Veles likely represented fundamental cosmic principles governing life, death, and fertility.
• Dazhbog (Dažbog): A sun god, considered a giver of blessings and wealth, sometimes identified as the son of Svarog.
• Svarog: Possibly an older celestial or fire god, sometimes seen as a creator deity or the father of Dazhbog and Svarožič (another fire/sun deity).
• Mokosh (Mokoš): A major goddess, often the only female deity mentioned in early East Slavic pantheons. She was associated with moisture, fertility, spinning, weaving, fate, and the protection of women.
• Stribog: God of winds, storm, and possibly destruction.
• Simargl (Semargl): A deity depicted as a winged dog or griffin, possibly a guardian of seeds and new shoots, with Iranian influences.
• Hors (Khors): Another solar deity, possibly of Iranian origin.
• Jarilo (Yarilo): A god of spring, vegetation, fertility, and youthful vigor. Other deities like Svantevit (Svetovid), a four-headed god of war and divination worshipped by the West Slavs at Arkona, and Triglav (a three-headed deity) are also known from specific regions.

Beliefs and Cosmology:

Slavic paganism featured a cyclical worldview deeply intertwined with nature and the agricultural seasons.25 The agricultural cycle served as a sacred drama, with festivals not merely as holidays but as ritualized enactments to ensure community survival through sympathetic magic and divine appeasement.25 Dualistic elements, such as the opposition or balance between Perun and Veles, were likely important.25 The concept of a World Tree, connecting the heavens, earth, and underworld, was also present, with Perun often at the top and Veles at the roots.25

Ancestor veneration was a significant aspect. The souls of the deceased were remembered and honored, for instance, by burning fires in cemeteries during winter festivals like Święto Godowe.²⁶ Rituals involving masked figures, possibly representing or attracting ancestor spirits, were performed, especially around the New Year.²⁵ Belief in a multitude of nature spirits—such as domovoi (house spirits), leshy (forest spirits), rusalki (water spirits/nymphs), and vila (female nature spirits)—was widespread.

Rituals and Festivals:

Slavic festivals followed a calendar likely based on lunar and solar cycles, beginning in early March.25 Key celebrations included:

• Winter Solstice Festivals (e.g., Koliada, Święto Godowe): Celebrated from late December to early January, marking the “birth” of the new sun (often Dazhbog succeeding an older Svarog) and the symbolic victory of light over darkness. Practices included carolling (kolędy), feasting, divination, and honoring ancestors.²⁵
• Spring Festivals (e.g., Maslenitsa, Jare Gody): Marking the end of winter and the welcoming of spring. Maslenitsa involved feasting (especially on pancakes resembling the sun), bonfires, and burning an effigy of winter. Jare (dedicated to Jarilo) included processions with green branches and flower wreaths, blessing households for fertility, and decorating eggs (a tradition later adopted by Christian Easter).²⁵
• Summer Solstice Festival (Kupala Night, Ivan Kupala): A major celebration of fertility, fire, and water. It involved lighting large bonfires, dancing, leaping over flames for purification and luck, ritual bathing, collecting herbs, and girls floating flower wreaths on rivers for divination.²⁵ Some sources suggest it was a time of communal or ritualized pairing. A festival honoring Perun was also held in mid-summer, reportedly the most significant of the year and possibly involving human sacrifices in some accounts.²⁵
• Harvest Festivals (e.g., Dożynki): Celebrated at the end of the harvest season, giving thanks for the bounty. Rituals could involve making a large wheat cake or a wreath from the last sheaf of grain, and feasting.²⁵ The temple of Svantevit, for example, had a specific harvest ritual involving a massive cake.²⁵

Rituals were also performed for specific gods, such as offerings to Dazhbog during harvest or prayers to Simargl for rain.²⁵ Religious leaders, sometimes referred to as “shamans,” volkhvy, or priests (žreci), led processions and performed ceremonies.²⁵

Social Aspects and Survival:

After the Christianization of Slavic lands (a process spanning several centuries), many pagan practices did not simply disappear but were either suppressed, transformed, or blended with Christian beliefs. This led to a phenomenon known as dvoeverie (“dual faith” or “double belief”), particularly in rural areas, where peasants formally accepted Christian holidays and baptism but continued to observe ancient pagan cults, rites, and beliefs concerning nature spirits.25 Christian saints often took on the attributes and festival days of older pagan deities (e.g., St. Elijah the Thunderer for Perun, St. Blaise for Veles as protector of cattle). This syncretism demonstrates the remarkable tenacity of pre-Christian beliefs, which survived by merging with or being reinterpreted through a Christian lens, rather than being entirely eradicated. This highlights that deeply embedded cultural and religious practices are highly adaptable and can persist by finding new forms of expression within dominant religious frameworks, a key aspect of religious change and continuity.

E. Life by the Nile: Ancient Egyptian Religion

Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex and enduring system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals that formed the integral core of Egyptian society for millennia, from the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100 BCE) until its gradual decline with the rise of Christianity and later Islam. It was characterized by a vast pantheon, elaborate funerary practices, a deep concern with cosmic order, and the divine status of the pharaoh.

Major Deities and Pantheon:

The Egyptian pantheon was extensive and multifaceted, with deities whose importance could fluctuate over time and by region. Major gods and goddesses included 14:

• Ra (Re): The primary sun god, often considered the king of the deities and a creator god, associated with order and the cycle of life. Frequently depicted as a falcon-headed man crowned with a solar disk.
• Osiris: God of the underworld, resurrection, fertility, and agriculture. Mythically murdered by his brother Set and resurrected by his wife Isis, he became the judge of the dead.
• Isis: Wife of Osiris and mother of Horus, a powerful goddess of magic, motherhood, healing, and protection. Her cult later spread throughout the Greco-Roman world.
• Horus: Son of Osiris and Isis, a sky god associated with kingship and protection, often depicted as a falcon or a falcon-headed man. The living pharaoh was considered an incarnation or representative of Horus.
• Set (Seth): God of chaos, storms, deserts, and violence; the antagonist of Osiris and Horus, yet also a protector of Ra.
• Anubis: God of mummification, embalming, and cemeteries, guiding souls through the underworld. Depicted as a jackal or a jackal-headed man.
• Thoth: God of wisdom, writing, knowledge, scribes, the moon, and magic. Often depicted as an ibis-headed man or a baboon.
• Ptah: A creator god, patron of artisans and craftsmen, particularly associated with Memphis.
• Hathor: Goddess of love, beauty, music, dance, joy, and motherhood, often depicted as a cow or a woman with cow horns and a sun disk.
• Amun: Initially a local Theban deity, he rose to prominence as Amun-Ra, king of the gods, during the New Kingdom. The pantheon reflected the Egyptians’ worldview and their belief in divine influence over all aspects of mortal life.¹⁴

Core Beliefs and Cosmology:

A central concept in Egyptian thought was Ma’at, a multifaceted idea embodying cosmic order, truth, justice, harmony, balance, and propriety.14 Ma’at was both a goddess and the fundamental principle that governed the universe, society, and individual morality. It was believed to have been established by Ra at the time of creation, bringing order out of primordial chaos (isfet).15 The pharaoh’s primary duty was to uphold Ma’at on earth, and their legitimacy depended on it.15 Ma’at was the unifying principle of existence, permeating every aspect of Egyptian life and belief, and its opposite, isfet, was the ultimate evil to be avoided. The seven principles of Ma’at were Truth, Justice, Harmony, Balance, Order, Reciprocity, and Propriety.27

The Egyptians had a strong belief in the afterlife, which led to elaborate burial practices, including mummification, the construction of monumental tombs (pyramids for early pharaohs, later rock-cut tombs), and the provision of grave goods for the deceased’s use in the next world.⁷ A key part of the journey to the afterlife was the Weighing of the Heart ceremony, where the deceased’s heart was weighed on a scale against the feather of Ma’at. If the heart was lighter than or equal to the feather (indicating a life lived in accordance with Ma’at), the soul was granted passage to Aaru, the Field of Reeds, a blissful afterlife ruled by Osiris. If the heart was heavy with sin, it was devoured by the monster Ammit, and the soul faced oblivion.¹⁵ The Book of the Dead, a collection of spells and prayers, served as a guide for the deceased through the perils of the underworld (Duat).¹⁴ This elaborate system suggests the afterlife was seen not merely as an escape but as a crucial continuation of existence, profoundly contingent on one’s earthly adherence to Ma’at, underscoring the ethical weight of actions in life.

Divine Kingship was a cornerstone of Egyptian society. The pharaoh was considered a living god, or at least divinely ordained, serving as the intermediary between the gods and the people, and responsible for maintaining Ma’at.⁷ Duality was another key concept in their religious understanding, often expressed in complementary pairs (e.g., Upper and Lower Egypt, order and chaos).¹⁴

Temple Rituals and Daily Cult:

Temples were considered the earthly homes of the deities and were staffed by priests who performed rituals on behalf of the pharaoh and the people.14 The daily cult ritual was performed in every temple by specially designated priests. This involved a series of elaborate actions focused on tending to the cult image of the deity (or deified king/blessed dead), which was believed to house the divine presence. These rituals included purification with incense, opening the shrine, bowing and singing hymns, offering food, drink, clothing, and ointments to the divine image.28 Crucially, the Egyptians did not worship idols in the sense of the images themselves being divine forces; rather, the consecrated images (often through an “opening of the mouth” ritual) provided a visible and tangible form through which human offerings and service could be channeled to the divine.28 The daily temple rituals were not mere appeasement but were seen as essential for maintaining the presence of the deity, ensuring divine favor, and thereby upholding cosmic order (Ma’at), benefiting both the divine and human realms in a symbiotic relationship. The Amun ritual, detailed in Papyrus Berlin 3055, outlines these steps, including the symbolic offering of the goddess Ma’at herself to the deity, signifying the restoration of order.28

Festivals, such as the Opet Festival (celebrating the link between the pharaoh and Amun) and the Festival of the Valley (honoring the deceased), were important occasions for public worship and celebration, often involving grand processions of divine statues.¹⁴

Personal Piety and Magic (Heka):

While state religion focused on grand temples and official cults, personal piety grew in importance, especially from the New Kingdom onwards. Individuals could offer prayers and offerings at smaller local shrines or in their homes, and the use of amulets (like the Eye of Horus or the shen ring for protection and eternity) was widespread.14

Magic (heka) was not seen as separate from religion but as an integral part of it. Heka was the divine power that made creation possible and sustained the cosmos; it could be harnessed through rituals, spells, and incantations for protection against harm, healing illnesses, ensuring good fortune, and influencing the gods.¹⁴ Priests often acted as magicians, and magical texts were common.

F. Before the Prophet: Pre-Islamic Arabian Paganism

The Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam in the 7th century CE was characterized by a diverse religious landscape. The dominant form was indigenous Arab polytheism, which coexisted with and was influenced by communities of Jews, Christians, and adherents of Iranian religions (like Zoroastrianism) and Sabianism.²⁹ This complex milieu was not static but was shaped by indigenous animistic and polytheistic traditions alongside significant cultural and religious currents from neighboring civilizations like Mesopotamia, Persia, Byzantium, and Abyssinia.²⁹

Deities and Idols:

Arab polytheism involved the veneration of numerous deities and spirits. Worship was often localized, centered on specific shrines and temples associated with particular tribes or regions. The most notable of these was the Kaaba in Mecca, which housed a multitude of idols—reportedly up to 360—representing various tribal deities, making it a significant pan-Arabian pilgrimage site even before Islam.29 The pre-Islamic sanctity and centrality of the Kaaba made its later Islamic re-consecration a potent act of religious transformation and unification for the emerging Muslim community.

Among the prominent deities worshipped were:

• Hubal: Considered by some sources to be the chief god of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca, possibly a moon god with Syrian origins.²⁹ His idol was located within the Kaaba.
• Allāt, Al-‘Uzzá, and Manāt: These three were highly revered goddesses, sometimes referred to as the “daughters of Allah” (though this interpretation is complex and debated). Allāt was associated with the sun by some, or the underworld; Al-‘Uzzá (“the Mighty One”) was linked to fertility and power, possibly identified with the planet Venus; and Manāt was a goddess of fate, destiny, and death.²⁹ They had sanctuaries in different parts of Arabia.
• Other tribal deities and idols included Wad (a moon god), Suwāʿ, Yaghūth, Yaʿūq, and Nasr (mentioned in the Qur’an as ancient idols), as well as ʾIsāf and Nāʾila at Mecca.³³

The term “Allah” (meaning “The God” in Arabic) was known and used in pre-Islamic Arabia. Its precise role is a subject of scholarly debate: it may have referred to a specific high god among others, the supreme deity for certain tribes, or simply a generic term for “the divinity”.³¹ The presence of Jewish and Christian communities, who also used terms related to “Allah” for their God, likely contributed to the complex understanding of this name in the pre-Islamic religious environment.³¹

Practices and Beliefs:

Pre-Islamic Arabian religion involved various practices:

• Sanctification of Natural Objects: Stones, trees, wells, and caves were often considered sacred and imbued with divine power.²⁹ Stone worship (litholatry) was particularly widespread, with the Black Stone embedded in the Kaaba being a focal point of veneration.³³
• Pilgrimage (Hajj): Pilgrimages were made to sacred sites, most notably the Kaaba in Mecca. Rituals included circumambulation (ṭawāf) of the Kaaba, wearing special white pilgrim robes (iḥrām), and running between the nearby hills of Safa and Marwa.²⁹
• Sacrifice: Animal sacrifices were offered to deities, and their blood was sometimes smeared on sacred stones or altars.²⁹
• Divination and Soothsaying: Seeking knowledge of the future or divine will through various means, often involving priests (kahins) or soothsayers, was common.
• Astral Worship: The veneration of celestial bodies, such as the sun, moon, and the planet Venus, was present, likely influenced by Mesopotamian (e.g., Sabian) and other ancient Near Eastern traditions.²⁹ Some scholars argue that the Islamic month of Ramadan and its associated fasting practices may have roots in pre-Islamic Sabian lunar cults.³⁴
• Belief in Spirits (Jinn): A strong belief existed in various spirits, including jinn, which could be benevolent or malevolent and were thought to inspire poets and soothsayers, or cause misfortune and illness.³² Ghouls were also part of this spiritual landscape.³²
• Ancestor Veneration: Honoring and seeking intercession from ancestors was also practiced.
• Fire Cults: Some evidence suggests the presence of fire veneration, possibly influenced by Zoroastrianism (Magi) from Persia.³³

Beliefs about the afterlife were varied and often less defined, particularly among nomadic Bedouin tribes, whose religious concerns tended to focus on immediate worldly matters. Settled Arabs in towns may have had more developed concepts.³²

Influence on Early Islam:

The emergence of Islam under the Prophet Muhammad involved a radical break from polytheism towards strict monotheism. However, many pre-Islamic Arabian rituals, sacred sites (most notably the Kaaba and its associated pilgrimage rites), and even some divine names or concepts were incorporated, reinterpreted, and given new meaning within the Islamic framework.29 Muhammad’s mission included cleansing the Kaaba of its idols and rededicating it to the worship of the One God (Allah), linking it to the patriarch Abraham.29 This process of absorption and re-signification was crucial for Islam’s establishment and spread in Arabia.

The Islamic concept of Jahiliyya (“Age of Ignorance”) is used to describe the pre-Islamic period, often emphasizing its idolatry, tribal feuds, and perceived moral failings.³¹ While this term highlights the transformative impact of Islam, it is also a theological and polemical construct. Some scholars argue that it may oversimplify the pre-Islamic religious landscape, which might have included indigenous monotheistic or henotheistic trends (such as the ḥanīf tradition or the worship of a “High God”) alongside polytheism.³¹ The term “Jahiliyya,” therefore, serves not just as a neutral historical descriptor but also as a narrative device within Islamic tradition to frame its own emergence as a divine intervention correcting a state of spiritual darkness.

G. Common Threads: Shared Beliefs and Practices in Antiquity

Despite the vast geographical and cultural diversity of ancient pagan traditions, several common threads in belief and practice can be identified. These recurring elements suggest fundamental human ways of engaging with the sacred, making sense of the cosmos, and structuring communal life in pre-modern societies.

A near-universal characteristic was polytheism, the belief in and worship of multiple deities.⁴ These gods and goddesses were often organized into divine hierarchies or pantheons, sometimes with a supreme figure or a council of ruling deities, as seen with the Greek Olympians or the Egyptian Ennead.⁷ Deities were frequently anthropomorphic, depicted with human forms, personalities, and emotions, making them relatable figures with whom humans could interact.⁷ This personification of divine forces allowed for both a reverence for abstract sacredness and the development of personal relationships with specific divine beings.

Nature worship and the deification of natural forces were deeply ingrained.⁴ The sun, moon, earth, sky, storms, and the principles of fertility were commonly seen as divine entities themselves or as governed by specific gods and goddesses. The sacredness of particular locations—such as mountains, groves, springs, and rivers—was widely recognized, with these sites often becoming focal points for worship and ritual.⁶ This reflects a worldview where the divine was immanently present in the natural world.

Ritual and sacrifice formed the core of religious practice across most ancient paganisms.⁷ Offerings of various kinds—food, drink, incense, precious objects, and most notably, animal sacrifice—were the primary means of interacting with the divine. These acts were performed for a multitude of purposes: to appease angered deities, express gratitude, secure blessings and favor, ensure fertility, or mark important communal events.

The performance of these rituals and the interpretation of divine will often fell to priesthoods and sacred specialists. These individuals or groups—be they priests and priestesses in temple cults, Celtic Druids, Slavic volkhvy, or Egyptian mortuary priests—acted as intermediaries between the human and divine realms.⁷

Life in ancient pagan societies was frequently punctuated by festivals and calendrical rites. These celebrations were typically tied to seasonal changes, agricultural cycles (planting, harvest), astronomical events (solstices, equinoxes), and lunar phases, structuring time and reinforcing the community’s connection to cosmic rhythms.⁹

Divination and oracles were common methods for seeking knowledge of the future or discerning divine will. Practices varied widely, including augury (interpreting bird flights or other natural signs), haruspicy (examining the entrails of sacrificed animals), consulting oracular shrines like Delphi, or engaging in shamanistic journeying to spirit worlds.⁹

A belief in some form of afterlife was prevalent, though conceptions varied greatly. Often, the afterlife involved a journey for the soul, a judgment based on earthly deeds or social status, and different destinies or realms for the deceased. The inclusion of grave goods with burials was a common practice, suggesting the deceased would have needs in the next world.⁷

Magic and theurgy (divinely inspired magic) were also widespread components. There was a general belief in the ability to influence the world, communicate with spirits or deities, heal, protect, or cause harm through specific ritual actions, spells, and incantations.¹¹

Rich mythological traditions were central to ancient paganisms, providing narratives that explained cosmology (the origin and structure of the universe), theogony (the origin and genealogy of the gods), the creation of humanity, the relationship between gods and mortals, and the meanings behind rituals and natural phenomena.⁷

The ubiquity of these practices across diverse cultures—such as sacrifice, divination, and seasonal festivals—points to fundamental human strategies for ordering an often unpredictable world, seeking to influence forces perceived as beyond ordinary control, and establishing a collective sense of meaning. This suggests that many of these religious forms arose from deep-seated psychological and social needs common to humanity.

Furthermore, the emphasis on ritual correctness, festivals, and priest-led ceremonies in many ancient pagan traditions indicates that correct practice (orthopraxy) was often more central than adherence to a strict, uniform set of beliefs (orthodoxy), a characteristic that often distinguishes them from later scriptural, creed-based religions.⁷ While myths provided narratives and a framework for understanding, the primary religious demand was often correct participation in communal rites rather than uniform assent to a specific theological doctrine. This practical, action-oriented approach to religion is a key differentiator from many faiths that prioritize doctrinal conformity.

The following table provides a comparative overview of some key ancient pagan traditions:

Table 1: Key Ancient Pagan Traditions and Their Core Characteristics

Tradition	Key Deities	Core Beliefs (Cosmology, Afterlife)	Key Rituals/Practices	Key Social Features/Priesthood
Greco-Roman	Olympians (Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Apollo, etc.); Roman equivalents (Jupiter, Juno, Mars, etc.) 7	Polytheism, divine hierarchy, myths of gods/heroes. Afterlife varied (e.g., Hades, Elysian Fields). Roman pietas, do ut des. 9	Animal sacrifice, libations, votive offerings, festivals (e.g., Panathenaea, Saturnalia), Panhellenic Games, mystery cults, oracles. 9	Temple priests/priestesses, Roman priestly colleges (Pontiffs, Augurs, Vestals). Religion integrated with civic life. 9
Celtic	Lugus, Toutatis, Taranis, Cernunnos, Epona, Matronae (Mother Goddesses), Brighid. Regional variations. 13	Polytheism, animism, triplicity. Belief in Otherworld, transmigration of souls. Strong connection to nature, sacred groves (nemeton). 13	Votive offerings (especially in water), animal sacrifice, (possibly) human sacrifice, head cult, seasonal festivals (Samhain, Beltane, etc.). 13	Druids (priests, judges, teachers), Bards, Vates. Oral tradition paramount. 20
Norse/Germanic	Æsir (Odin, Thor, Frigg, Týr), Vanir (Freyja, Freyr). Belief in Wyrd (fate). 21	Polytheism, Gifting Cycle, honor culture. Afterlife realms (Valhalla, Fólkvangr, Hel), possible rebirth. No original sin. 21	Blót (sacrifice/offering), Symbel (ritual drinking), feasting, prayer, seasonal festivals (Yule, Sigrblót, Vetrnætr). 21	Goðar (chieftain-priests in Iceland). Kindred-based. Lore from Eddas and Sagas. 23
Slavic	Perun, Veles, Dazhbog, Mokosh, Svarog, Jarilo. Regional variations. 25	Polytheism, dualistic elements (Perun/Veles), World Tree. Cyclical view tied to agriculture. Ancestor veneration. Nature spirits. 25	Seasonal festivals (Koliada, Maslenitsa, Kupala Night, Dożynki), bonfires, ritual bathing, offerings, decorated eggs. 25	Volkhvy/žreci (priests/shamans). Strong folk traditions, dvoeverie (dual faith) after Christianization. 25
Ancient Egyptian	Ra, Osiris, Isis, Horus, Anubis, Thoth, Amun, Ptah, Ma’at. Vast pantheon. 14	Polytheism, divine kingship. Centrality of Ma’at (cosmic order, justice). Elaborate afterlife beliefs (judgment, mummification, Aaru). 14	Daily temple cult (offerings to divine images), major festivals (Opet, Valley), mummification, magic (heka). 14	Pharaoh as divine intermediary. Well-established priesthoods serving temples. Scribes important for religious texts. 14
Pre-Islamic Arabian	Hubal, Allāt, Al-‘Uzzá, Manāt. Many local/tribal deities. Idols at Kaaba. 29	Polytheism, animism, fetishism (stones, trees), jinn. Astral worship. Varied afterlife views. “Allah” as possible high god. 29	Pilgrimage (Hajj to Kaaba), circumambulation, animal sacrifice, veneration of sacred stones (Black Stone), divination. 29	Kahins (soothsayers/priests). Tribal cults. Kaaba as central shrine. 29

III. The Shifting Tides: Decline, Transformation, and Survival

The religious landscape of the ancient world, once dominated by a multitude of pagan traditions, underwent profound transformations with the rise and expansion of monotheistic religions, primarily Christianity and Islam. This section examines the complex processes that led to the decline of ancient paganisms as dominant state or societal religions, including persecution and legislative suppression. It also explores the remarkable resilience of pagan elements, which often did not simply vanish but were transformed, syncretized into the newly dominant faiths, or survived within folk traditions and popular culture.

A. The Rise of Monotheism and the Waning of the Old Gods

The ascent of Christianity within the Roman Empire and the later emergence of Islam in Arabia were pivotal events that fundamentally altered the religious trajectory of vast regions. A core characteristic that distinguished these new faiths from most existing polytheistic systems was their inherent exclusivity.

In the Roman Empire, Christianity’s strict monotheism presented a direct challenge to the prevailing pagan cults. Unlike the syncretic tendencies often seen between different polytheistic religions (for example, the way ancient Egyptian deities were sometimes integrated into the Greco-Roman religious sphere ³⁸), early Christianity generally did not permit the co-existence or absorption of other deities into its theological framework.³⁸ As Christianity gained adherents and, eventually, imperial favor, this theological exclusivity translated into social and political pressure on pagan practices. Egypt, for instance, became an early and significant center for Christianity, even before the Edict of Milan in 313 CE officially granted tolerance.³⁸ There, local Christian communities actively engaged in proselytism and, at times, iconoclasm, directly undermining traditional Egyptian religious institutions and practices.³⁸

Similarly, in 7th-century Arabia, Islam emerged in a vibrant religious environment characterized by pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism, as well as established Jewish and Christian communities.²⁹ The Prophet Muhammad’s mission involved a radical rejection of Meccan polytheism and the multitude of idols venerated at the Kaaba. Islam’s core tenet of absolute monotheism (tawhid) demanded the exclusive worship of Allah, the One God. While Islam, in its development, strategically incorporated and reinterpreted certain pre-Islamic Arabian sites and rituals (most notably the Kaaba and Hajj pilgrimage practices), it fundamentally aimed to eradicate polytheistic worship.²⁹ Islamic theology, while unique, also developed in dialogue with, and sometimes in reaction against, existing pagan, Jewish, and Christian beliefs and practices prevalent in the region.²⁹

The success and expansion of these monotheistic faiths were often facilitated by their ability to offer comprehensive worldviews, strong community structures, and, in many cases, the backing of political power. This combination proved formidable, leading to the gradual, and sometimes forceful, displacement of the “old gods” from their positions of public prominence. This process involved not just theological debate but also strategic reinterpretation and co-option of existing sacred elements. Both Christianity and Islam, as they expanded, often repurposed pagan sacred sites by building churches or mosques on their foundations, or Christianized pagan festivals by imbuing them with new meanings.²⁹ This was a complex dynamic: it served to assert the dominance of the new faith and facilitate conversion by making the new religion feel less alien, while simultaneously erasing and subtly preserving elements of the older traditions, albeit under a new theological umbrella.

B. Persecution, Anti-Pagan Legislation (e.g., Theodosian Decrees), and the Closing of Temples

The decline of ancient paganisms was not solely a matter of passive attrition or voluntary conversion; it was often accelerated by active persecution and systematic legislative suppression, particularly within the Roman Empire as it transitioned to Christianity, and to a different extent in regions that came under Islamic rule.

In the Roman Empire:

The shift from Roman religious tolerance (or syncretic absorption) towards Christian exclusivity was a gradual but momentous process, intrinsically linked to the emperors’ increasing adoption and promotion of Christianity. Persecution of pagans began to manifest during the reign of Constantine the Great (306–337 CE). While Constantine issued the Edict of Milan (313 CE) granting religious tolerance, he also personally favored Christianity, destroyed some pagan temples, confiscated temple funds and lands for Christian churches or state projects, and periodically forbade pagan sacrifices, though enforcement of these measures was often inconsistent and he never formally reversed the policy of toleration.39

His son, Constantius II (337–361 CE), enacted stricter legislation. He issued laws forbidding pagan sacrifices and the worship of images, making these capital crimes, and ordered the closure of all temples.³⁹ It was during his reign that the Altar of Victory, a potent symbol of Roman pagan tradition, was first removed from the Senate House in Rome, though it was later briefly restored.³⁹

The brief reign of Emperor Julian (361–363 CE), known as “the Apostate,” saw an attempt to restore paganism to its former status and dismantle Christian privileges, but this was an exception and his efforts were short-lived.³⁹ Subsequent emperors like Valentinian I and Valens largely adopted policies of religious toleration.³⁹

A more decisive turning point came with Emperor Gratian (375–383 CE), who, influenced by figures like Bishop Ambrose of Milan, withdrew state financial subsidies for pagan cults, confiscated the property of priestly colleges (including the Vestal Virgins), refused the traditional imperial title of pontifex maximus (chief priest of Roman religion), and ordered the Altar of Victory to be removed again from the Senate.³⁹

The most comprehensive legal assault on paganism occurred under Emperor Theodosius I (379–395 CE). Between 389 and 392 CE, he issued a series of edicts, often referred to as the Theodosian Decrees, which effectively established a practical ban on all forms of pagan worship and made Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire.³⁹ These decrees forbade not only public sacrifices and visits to temples but also private household rites, such as offering wine or incense to Lares and Penates or venerating statues. Auspices and divination were also prohibited. Violations could be treated as treasonable offenses, punishable by loss of property or even death.⁴³ The sacred fire in the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum was extinguished, and the order of Vestal Virgins was disbanded.⁴⁴

Following these decrees, the destruction of pagan temples and their conversion into Christian churches accelerated, sometimes through official imperial action, but often through the actions of zealous Christian monks, bishops, and mobs, as seen in the destruction of the famous Serapeum in Alexandria.³⁸ However, archaeological evidence suggests that violent temple destruction might have been less widespread than Christian triumphalist literary accounts claim; “desacralization”—the removal of cult statues and altars, allowing the building to be repurposed—was often more common.³⁹

Anti-pagan legislation continued after Theodosius I, through the reigns of his successors in both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. Emperor Justinian I (527–565 CE) in the Byzantine East further solidified the legal suppression of paganism, ordering the closure of the ancient Neoplatonic Academy in Athens in 529 CE and persecuting remaining Hellenes.³⁹

The symbiotic relationship between imperial power and religious transformation is evident throughout this period. Legislation became a key instrument for enforcing theological conformity, demonstrating how state authority can be wielded to reshape a society’s religious landscape. However, there is an ongoing scholarly debate regarding the pace and nature of paganism’s decline. The traditional “catastrophist” view emphasizes a rapid demise in the late 4th and early 5th centuries due to harsh Christian legislation and violence. In contrast, many contemporary scholars favor a “long, slow demise” theory, suggesting that paganism declined more gradually over several centuries, with less overt conflict and a greater role for grassroots Christianization and cultural assimilation.³⁹ This latter view implies that both elite-driven “top-down” policies and popular “bottom-up” movements contributed to the religious shift, and their relative importance varied across different regions and times. The very need for repeated imperial edicts against pagan practices over centuries ³⁹ strongly indicates that these traditions were resilient and continued, often in private, adapted, or syncretic forms, despite official condemnation. This persistence suggests that legal proscription does not equate to the immediate eradication of deeply ingrained cultural and religious habits.

In Regions under Islamic Rule:

With the rise of Islam in the 7th century and its rapid expansion, paganism in Arabia and conquered territories faced a different trajectory. While Islam, under the dhimmi system, generally offered a degree of tolerance and protection to “People of the Book” (Jews and Christians) upon payment of a special tax (jizya), it was uncompromisingly hostile towards polytheism. The Prophet Muhammad’s conquest of Mecca culminated in the destruction of the idols within and around the Kaaba, symbolizing the end of its pagan cult and its rededication to Allah.29 Pre-Islamic Arabian pagan traditions were largely suppressed, assimilated into an Islamic framework (like the Hajj), or faded away as the population converted to Islam. The historical record regarding the fate of non-Abrahamic pagan communities in other regions conquered by early Islamic armies is more varied and complex, often depending on local conditions and interpretations of Islamic law.

C. Syncretism and Survival: Pagan Echoes in Folk Traditions and Major Religions

Despite official suppression and the ascendancy of monotheistic religions, elements of ancient pagan beliefs and practices did not simply vanish. Instead, they often demonstrated remarkable resilience, surviving through processes of syncretism (the blending of different religious beliefs and practices) and by becoming embedded within folk traditions and popular culture, sometimes even within the fabric of the newly dominant religions themselves.

Christian Syncretism:

The spread of Christianity throughout Europe and the Mediterranean world was frequently accompanied by the absorption and transformation of existing pagan elements. This was not always an accidental blending but often a deliberate strategy by the Church to facilitate conversion by making the new faith more familiar and accessible to pagan populations, as well as a natural tendency for cultures to retain familiar forms even when adopting new beliefs.40

• Festivals and Holy Days: Many popular indigenous festivals and holy days were adapted into the Christian liturgical calendar. For example, the celebration of Christmas around the winter solstice (December 25th) incorporated traditions from Roman Saturnalia and various pagan winter solstice festivals celebrating the rebirth of the sun.⁴⁰ Similarly, Easter, while rooted in Jewish Passover, aligned with pre-Christian spring equinox festivals celebrating fertility and renewal, adopting symbols like eggs and hares.⁴⁰
• Saints and Deities: Some pre-Christian deities or local spirits were gradually assimilated into the veneration of Christian saints. For instance, the Celtic goddess Brighid shares many attributes and her festival day (Imbolc, February 1st) with the Christian St. Brigid of Kildare.⁴¹ The imagery and devotional practices associated with the Egyptian goddess Isis, particularly her depiction as a nursing mother with her son Horus, are seen by some scholars as having influenced the development of Marian veneration (the reverence of Mary, mother of Jesus).⁴¹
• Sacred Sites: Pagan sacred sites, such as groves, springs, and temples, were often Christianized by building churches or shrines on the same locations, thereby co-opting their pre-existing sanctity.⁴¹
• Folk Magic and Imagery: The use of charms, talismans, amulets, and spells for protection, healing, or luck continued as “folk magic” within Christian communities, often existing alongside or subtly integrated with Christian prayers and practices.⁴² Furthermore, pagan imagery, such as the Green Man (a foliate head symbolizing nature and rebirth) or Sheela-na-gigs (explicit female carvings), frequently appeared in the architecture and art of medieval churches, reflecting a vernacular religious expression that incorporated pre-Christian motifs.⁴²

Islamic Syncretism:

Early Islam, while staunchly monotheistic, also incorporated and re-signified certain pre-Islamic Arabian pagan rituals and sites.

• The Kaaba and Hajj: The most significant example is the retention of the Kaaba in Mecca as the central focus of Islamic worship and the incorporation of pre-Islamic Hajj pilgrimage rituals (such as circumambulating the Kaaba, venerating the Black Stone, running between the hills of Safa and Marwa, and the stoning of pillars at Mina) into Islamic practice, albeit re-framed within an Abrahamic monotheistic narrative.²⁹
• Ramadan Fast: Some scholars argue that the Islamic month of Ramadan and its practice of fasting from dawn till dusk may have antecedents in the lunar cults and fasting practices of the Sabians, a pre-Islamic religious group in Arabia or Mesopotamia.³⁴ While Islam unequivocally rejected polytheism and the worship of idols, its ability to absorb and re-purpose existing sacred geography and certain ritual forms played a role in its acceptance and establishment in Arabia.

Survival in Folklore and “Dual Faith”:

In many regions, particularly rural and less centrally controlled areas, elements of pagan belief systems persisted for centuries within folklore, storytelling, seasonal customs, and healing practices.41 Stories of ancient gods and goddesses sometimes survived as tales about fairies, local spirits, or even Christian saints with pagan-like attributes. Folk magic, herbalism, and divination practices often carried echoes of older traditions.

In some Slavic lands, this blending of old and new beliefs led to a phenomenon known as dvoeverie or “dual faith”.²⁵ Peasants might formally identify as Christian, attend church, and observe Christian holidays, but simultaneously continue to venerate nature spirits, practice ancient agricultural rites, and hold beliefs about the cosmos that stemmed from their pagan heritage. This challenges a simplistic understanding of religious conversion as a complete replacement of one belief system by another. Instead, it often involved a complex negotiation, where the lines between “old” and “new” could remain blurred for extended periods, or even permanently in some folk expressions of spirituality.

The persistence of these pagan echoes underscores the deep rootedness of ancestral traditions and the human tendency to integrate new beliefs with existing cultural frameworks. It suggests that conversion is often a gradual process of acculturation and re-signification, rather than an abrupt obliteration of the past. Folk religion, in particular, often acted as a repository where suppressed or marginalized beliefs could survive and adapt.

A modern manifestation of religious syncretism involving pagan and Christian elements is Christo-Paganism, a contemporary spiritual path where individuals combine Christian teachings and reverence for Jesus with Neopagan beliefs, deities, and practices.⁴⁵ This illustrates the ongoing dynamism and adaptability of religious expression.

IV. The Re-Emergence: The Birth and Growth of Modern Paganism (Neopaganism)

While ancient pagan traditions declined as dominant religions and their elements largely survived in syncretic or folkloric forms, the 19th and 20th centuries witnessed a conscious and deliberate effort to revive, reconstruct, and re-imagine these pre-Christian spiritualities. This movement, known as Modern Paganism or Neopaganism, is not an unbroken continuation of ancient paths but a contemporary religious phenomenon drawing inspiration from historical sources and shaped by modern intellectual and cultural currents.

A. Seeds of Revival: 19th and Early 20th Century Influences

The groundwork for Modern Paganism was laid by a confluence of intellectual, artistic, and social trends in the 19th and early 20th centuries that fostered a renewed interest in ancient, non-Christian spiritualities and a critique of prevailing societal norms.

Romanticism and Folklore Studies:

The Romantic movement, which flourished from the late 18th through the 19th century, played a crucial role. As a reaction against Enlightenment rationalism and the perceived soullessness of industrialization, Romanticism emphasized emotion, individualism, the sublime power of nature, and a fascination with the past, particularly medieval and folk traditions.2 This led to a renewed interest in non-classical antiquity, including Celtic, Slavic, and Viking mythologies and histories, often idealizing pre-Christian peoples as “noble savages” living in harmony with nature.2 A novel attitude emerged, particularly in Germany and later Britain, that viewed ancient paganism not as savage ignorance but as a religion of joy, liberation, creativity, and profound connection to the natural world.16 This perspective offered an alternative to what some saw as the repressive aspects of Victorian Christianity and the negative consequences of urbanized, industrialized life.

Simultaneously, the 19th century saw the rise of folklore studies as an academic discipline. Scholars like the Brothers Grimm in Germany and Elias Lönnrot (compiler of the Finnish epic, the Kalevala) meticulously collected and published folk tales, myths, and oral traditions, attempting to reconstruct ancient pagan mythologies.² Organizations like The Folklore Society, founded in London in 1878, advanced the idea that many folk customs, seasonal celebrations, and popular beliefs were survivals of pre-Christian pagan religions.⁴⁶ These scholarly (and sometimes pseudo-scholarly) endeavors provided a rich repository of source material and intellectual frameworks that later Neopagan practitioners would draw upon and reinterpret.

Occult Revival and Theosophy:

The late 19th and early 20th centuries also witnessed a significant occult revival. This period saw renewed interest in Western esoteric traditions, ceremonial magic, spiritualism, and alternative forms of spirituality. Influential figures like Helena Blavatsky, co-founder of the Theosophical Society in 1875, promoted a syncretic worldview that treated ancient paganism as a remnant of a single, great primeval spiritual system, popularizing concepts like reincarnation and esoteric wisdom in the West.16 Hermetic orders such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, founded in 1888, engaged in the study and practice of ceremonial magic, Qabalah, and other esoteric disciplines, attracting artists and intellectuals like W.B. Yeats, who himself harbored plans to revive an ancient pagan mystery religion.11 These movements, while not always directly pagan, contributed to an atmosphere of spiritual seeking outside mainstream religious institutions and provided magical and philosophical frameworks that would influence nascent Neopagan groups.

Early “Proto-Pagans” and Foundational Literary Works:

Several individuals and literary works from this period can be seen as direct precursors or “proto-pagan” influences:

• Thomas Taylor (1758–1835), an English Neoplatonist, translated numerous classical Greek philosophical and religious texts, including the Orphic Hymns, and privately practiced a reconstructed form of Hellenic paganism.⁴⁶
• Charles Godfrey Leland‘s book Aradia, or The Gospel of the Witches (1899) purported to document a surviving Italian tradition of witchcraft centered on the goddess Diana and her daughter Aradia.⁴⁶ While its authenticity as an ancient text is now widely disputed by scholars (often considered “fakelore” ⁴⁸), Aradia became a highly influential source for early Wicca, providing mythological themes and ritual elements. This creative myth-making, even if controversial, proved instrumental in providing a sense of historical legitimacy and a foundational narrative for emerging religious movements.
• Sir James Frazer‘s monumental work of comparative mythology, The Golden Bough (first edition 1890, abridged edition 1922), explored ancient fertility rites, dying-and-rising gods, and magical practices across cultures.⁴⁶ Though his theories are now largely superseded in anthropology, his work made a vast amount of mythological and ritual material accessible and fueled interest in ancient pagan themes.
• Margaret Murray, an Egyptologist, put forth her controversial “witch-cult hypothesis” in books like The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921) and The God of the Witches (1933).⁴⁶ She argued that the European witch trials of the early modern period were not based on delusion but were an attempt to suppress an organized, surviving pre-Christian pagan religion that worshipped a Horned God. While historians have largely discredited Murray’s thesis for lack of evidence and misinterpretation of sources, her ideas were profoundly influential on Gerald Gardner and the development of Wicca, providing a historical narrative (however flawed) for a revived witchcraft tradition.
• Early Druid orders also began to emerge or re-organize during this period, such as the Ancient Order of Druids (with roots in the 18th century) and the Ancient Order of Druids in America (founded in the US as early as 1874 or 1912).⁴ These groups drew inspiration from romanticized notions of ancient Celtic Druids.
• In 1938, Gleb Botkin, a Russian émigré, founded the Church of Aphrodite in Long Island, New York, dedicated to the worship of the Great Goddess, representing an early attempt to establish a formal pagan religious institution in the US.⁴⁶

These diverse currents—Romanticism’s nature reverence and historical fascination, folklore studies unearthing supposed pagan survivals, the occult revival’s exploration of magic and esoteric wisdom, and the work of specific writers and early groups—collectively tilled the soil from which Modern Paganism would sprout in the mid-20th century. It was a period where the “old gods” began to be re-evaluated, not as demonic figures or mere literary curiosities, but as potential sources of spiritual inspiration and connection in a rapidly changing modern world. This demonstrates a symbiotic relationship: scholarly (and sometimes pseudo-scholarly) inquiry provided intellectual frameworks and source material, which spiritual seekers then adapted and transformed into lived religious paths.

B. Key Architects and Foundational Texts of the Neopagan Movement

The mid-20th century saw the coalescence of earlier influences into more defined Neopagan movements, largely spearheaded by charismatic individuals who synthesized existing ideas, claimed unique knowledge or lineage, and attracted followers. Their writings became foundational texts for many subsequent practitioners, shaping the beliefs and practices of emergent traditions.

Key Architects:

• Gerald Gardner (1884–1964): Often dubbed the “father of modern Wicca,” Gardner was an English civil servant with a lifelong interest in occultism and folklore.⁴⁶ He claimed to have been initiated in 1939 into the New Forest coven, a group he asserted represented a surviving pre-Christian witch cult.⁴⁶ After the repeal of England’s last Witchcraft Act in 1951, Gardner went public, publishing High Magic’s Aid (1949, under the pseudonym Scire), Witchcraft Today (1954), and The Meaning of Witchcraft (1959).⁴⁸ These books popularized his version of witchcraft, which he called “Wica” or “Wicca.” Gardner’s system drew upon diverse sources, including ceremonial magic (particularly the works of Aleister Crowley, of whose Ordo Templi Orientis Gardner was a member ⁴⁶), Freemasonry, Leland’s Aradia, Frazer’s The Golden Bough, and Murray’s witch-cult hypothesis.⁴⁷ While the historical accuracy of his claims about an unbroken witch-cult lineage is heavily debated and largely rejected by contemporary historians ⁴⁹, his role in launching the Wiccan revival is undeniable.
• Doreen Valiente (1922–1999): An early and influential High Priestess in Gardner’s Bricket Wood coven. Valiente played a crucial role in shaping Gardnerian Wicca by significantly rewriting Gardner’s original ritual texts (his “Book of Shadows”), removing much of the overt Crowleyan material and infusing it with more poetic and nature-focused language. Her contributions helped make Wicca more accessible and appealing. She later authored several important books, including Where Witchcraft Lives (1962), An ABC of Witchcraft (1973), and The Rebirth of Witchcraft (1989), further elucidating Wiccan beliefs and history.
• Alex Sanders (1926–1988): Founder of Alexandrian Wicca in the 1960s. Sanders, a charismatic and controversial figure who proclaimed himself “King of the Witches” ⁵¹, claimed a hereditary witchcraft background. His tradition, while heavily based on Gardnerian Wicca (including its degree structure and core deities), placed a greater emphasis on ceremonial magic and Qabalah.⁴⁸ He and his then-wife, Maxine Sanders, were instrumental in popularizing Wicca through media appearances.
• Robert Cochrane (born Roy Bowers, 1931–1966): Founder of a non-Gardnerian tradition of witchcraft known as Cochrane’s Craft or the Clan of Tubal Cain in the early 1960s.⁴⁸ Cochrane claimed to be a hereditary witch and was often critical of Gardnerian Wicca. His tradition emphasized a more folkloric, “Old Craft” approach.
• Margot Adler (1946–2014): A journalist, priestess, and National Public Radio correspondent. Her landmark book, Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today (first published in 1979), was a comprehensive sociological study of the burgeoning Neopagan movement in the United States.⁴⁹ It provided an invaluable overview of the diversity of Pagan paths and significantly increased public awareness and understanding.
• Starhawk (born Miriam Simos, 1951): A highly influential feminist writer, activist, and witch. Her book The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess (1979) became a foundational text for feminist spirituality, the Goddess movement, and the Reclaiming tradition of Wicca, which blends witchcraft with political activism and social justice concerns.⁵⁵
• Scott Cunningham (1956–1993): A prolific American author whose numerous books, particularly Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner (1988), made Wiccan practices accessible to individuals outside of traditional coven structures.⁵⁶ His work was pivotal in the rapid growth of solitary Wicca and significantly democratized access to Pagan spirituality. This shift towards published, accessible material fundamentally altered the landscape of Wicca, moving it from a primarily initiatory, secretive tradition to one that could be learned and practiced individually, leading to its widespread expansion and diversification.

Foundational Texts (Beyond Individual Authors):

While specific books by the architects mentioned above are crucial, certain earlier works continued to serve as inspirational source material:

• Charles Godfrey Leland’s Aradia, or The Gospel of the Witches (1899).⁴⁶
• Margaret Murray’s The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921) and The God of the Witches (1933).⁴⁶
• Robert Graves’ The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth (1948, revised 1952, 1961) was highly influential for its poetic exploration of ancient mythologies and its focus on a tripartite Goddess, although its historical scholarship is widely contested.⁴⁷
• Sir James Frazer’s The Golden Bough (especially the 1922 abridged edition) continued to be a source of inspiration for understanding ancient rituals and mythic themes.⁴⁶

It is important to note the ongoing tension between “tradition” and “innovation” evident in the development of these movements. While figures like Gardner sought to establish a lineage and a set of traditional practices, subsequent figures and movements (like Dianic Wicca or Eclectic Wicca) challenged, adapted, or significantly diverged from these initial frameworks, reflecting a dynamic interplay between adherence to foundational forms and the embrace of flexibility and personal spiritual insight (gnosis). This dynamic is characteristic of many new religious movements as they grow and diversify. Furthermore, the role of charismatic founders, who often synthesize existing ideas and claim special knowledge or lineage (sometimes controversially), is a common pattern in the genesis of such movements, helping to establish authority and a distinct identity that attracts those seeking alternatives to mainstream religion.

C. Major Currents in Contemporary Paganism

Contemporary Paganism is not a single, monolithic religion but rather an umbrella term encompassing a wide spectrum of distinct traditions, paths, and practices. While sharing common roots in nature reverence and inspiration from pre-Christian beliefs, these currents vary significantly in their specific deities, rituals, ethics, and organizational structures. This diversity reflects both the richness of the historical sources drawn upon and the individualistic and adaptive nature of modern spiritual seeking. The development of various paths illustrates a fascinating tension between traditions emphasizing lineage, initiation, and defined structures, and those championing solitary practice, eclecticism, and individual spiritual authority.

1. Wicca:Wicca is arguably the most well-known and widespread branch of Modern Paganism. It typically involves the veneration of a Goddess and a Horned God, a reverence for nature, the practice of magic (or magick), and the observance of seasonal cycles.
   • Core Beliefs: Most Wiccans are duotheistic, worshipping a Goddess (often seen as triple: Maiden, Mother, Crone, and associated with the Moon and Earth) and a Horned God (associated with the Sun, forests, animals, and the life/death/rebirth cycle).⁵⁸ Some Wiccans may view these as aspects of a greater, singular divine force (“The All”), or work with a broader pantheon of deities from various cultures.⁵⁸ A deep reverence for nature and its spiritual power is central.⁵⁸ Wiccans typically follow the Wheel of the Year, celebrating eight major festivals called Sabbats: Samhain (Witches’ New Year, honoring ancestors), Yule (Winter Solstice), Imbolc (first stirrings of spring), Ostara (Spring Equinox), Beltane (height of spring, fertility), Litha (Summer Solstice), Lughnasadh/Lammas (first harvest), and Mabon (Autumn Equinox).⁵⁸ Belief in magic as a natural force that can be harnessed and directed through will and ritual is common, as is a belief in reincarnation.⁵⁸
   • Ethics: Many Wiccans adhere to the Wiccan Rede: “An it harm none, do what ye will,” which emphasizes personal responsibility and avoiding harm to oneself and others.⁵⁸ The Threefold Law (or Law of Return), the belief that whatever energy one sends out returns threefold, is also a common ethical principle, though not universally accepted across all traditions.⁶⁰
   • Practices: Rituals are often conducted within a cast sacred circle and may involve invoking deities, honoring the elements (Earth, Air, Fire, Water, Spirit), meditation, chanting, dancing, and spellcraft.⁵⁸ Many Wiccans keep a Book of Shadows, a personal journal of rituals, spells, and spiritual insights.⁵⁹
   • Traditions within Wicca: Wicca is highly diverse, with numerous distinct traditions:
     • Gardnerian Wicca: Considered the oldest formal tradition, tracing its lineage directly to Gerald Gardner. It is initiatory, coven-based, and typically involves a three-degree system of advancement. Gardnerian Wicca traditionally emphasizes the worship of the Horned God and the Mother Goddess, and historically involved ritual nudity (skyclad), though this varies in modern practice.⁵²
     • Alexandrian Wicca: Founded by Alex Sanders and his wife Maxine Sanders in the 1960s. It is very similar to Gardnerian Wicca in structure (three degrees, coven-based, duotheistic) but often incorporates more elements of ceremonial magic, Qabalah, and allows for robed ritual. It also introduces the archetypes of the Oak King and Holly King, representing the waxing and waning year.⁵²
     • Dianic Wicca: Primarily a feminist tradition, often focusing exclusively on the worship of the Goddess. Founded in the US in the 1970s by figures like Zsuzsanna Budapest, many Dianic covens are women-only and emphasize female empowerment, social justice, and a less hierarchical structure. Some later offshoots of Dianic Wicca are more inclusive of men.⁵²
     • Eclectic Wicca: This is not a single tradition but an approach where practitioners, often solitary, draw from various Wiccan and Pagan sources to create a personalized spiritual path. It is the most populous form of Wicca, particularly in the United States, largely due to the availability of published materials.⁵⁴
     • Other traditions include Seax-Wicca (founded by Raymond Buckland, inspired by Saxon paganism), Norse Wicca, Celtic Wicca, and Faerie Wicca, each with unique emphases and practices.⁵²
2. Modern Druidry (Neo-Druidism):Modern Druidry seeks to revive and adapt the spiritual practices and philosophies attributed to the ancient Celtic Druids, filtered through historical accounts, folklore, and modern inspiration.
   • Core Beliefs: Central tenets include a profound reverence for nature (often viewing the Earth itself as sacred and all life as interconnected and imbued with spirit), the pursuit of wisdom, knowledge, and truth, and honoring ancestors.³⁷ Many Druids embrace a polytheistic worldview, honoring deities from Celtic pantheons, while others may be pantheistic, animistic, or even monotheistic (seeing a singular divine source expressed through nature).⁶¹ A key concept for many is Awen, a Welsh term signifying divine inspiration, flowing spirit, or creative essence. Values often include peace, harmony, justice, and personal growth.³⁷
   • Practices: Druidic practices often involve meditation, prayer or communion with deities and nature spirits, nature connection (spending time in and observing the natural world), environmental stewardship and activism, and rituals frequently performed outdoors in natural settings like groves or near ancient sites (e.g., stone circles).³⁷ Like Wiccans, many Druids celebrate the Wheel of the Year with its eight seasonal festivals.⁶² Storytelling, poetry, music, divination (such as Ogham), and herbalism are also common pursuits.³⁷
   • Organizations: Modern Druidry is often organized into Orders, which may offer structured training programs through grades or ranks (often Bard, Ovate, and Druid). Notable orders include the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (OBOD), Ár nDraíocht Féin (ADF – “Our Own Druidry,” a US-based reconstructionist group), and The Druid Network.⁵⁰
3. Heathenry (Ásatrú, Germanic Neopaganism):Heathenry is a modern revival of the pre-Christian religious traditions of the Norse and other Germanic-speaking peoples of Northern Europe.
   • Core Beliefs: Heathenry is generally polytheistic, involving the worship of the gods and goddesses of the Norse pantheon, primarily the Æsir (e.g., Odin, Thor, Frigg, Týr) and the Vanir (e.g., Freyja, Freyr, Njörðr), as well as honoring ancestors and land spirits (landvættir).²¹ Some Heathens also believe in an underlying divine energy or essence from which the deities manifest.²⁴ Key virtues emphasized include courage, honor, truth, loyalty to kin, hospitality, self-reliance, perseverance, and industriousness.²⁴ A common maxim is “We are our deeds,” highlighting the importance of one’s actions and reputation.²³ Beliefs about the afterlife are varied, including realms like Valhalla or Hel, and sometimes a concept of rebirth within the family line.²⁴ Heathenry generally rejects concepts like original sin.²⁴
   • Practices: The central communal ritual in Heathenry is the Blót, an offering or sacrifice (historically animals, now commonly mead, ale, or food) made to deities, ancestors, or land spirits.²¹ The Symbel (or Sumbel) is another important ritual, a formal gathering involving rounds of toasting with a drinking horn, where oaths, boasts, and tributes are made.²¹ Communal feasting, prayer, and the study of historical and mythological lore (such as the Eddas and Sagas) are also integral.²¹ The use of runes for divination or magical purposes is common.²⁴
   • Community Structure: Heathens often organize into local groups called Kindreds, Hearths, or Garths.⁵⁷
   • Folkish vs. Universalist Debate: A significant internal division within Heathenry concerns ethnicity and heritage. Folkish Heathenry asserts that the religion is intrinsically tied to Germanic or Northern European ancestry, sometimes leading to exclusionary and racially-biased ideologies.¹⁷ Universalist Heathenry, in contrast, believes that the Norse deities can call anyone to their worship, regardless of ethnic background, and actively promotes inclusivity.¹⁷ This debate is particularly prominent in the United States.
4. Goddess Spirituality:This is a broad spiritual movement centered on the worship and reverence of the Divine Feminine, often referred to as the Goddess.
   • Core Beliefs: Goddess Spirituality can be monotheistic (worshipping a singular Great Goddess), duotheistic (Goddess and God), or polytheistic (honoring many diverse goddesses from various cultures, such as Greek, Roman, Norse, Celtic, Egyptian, and others).⁵³ A common theme is the idea of “The One and the Many”—a singular divine feminine principle manifesting in numerous forms.⁶⁵ The Earth is often seen as sacred, as the body of the Goddess (Gaia).⁶⁵ The movement emphasizes female empowerment, intuition, healing, compassion, equality, and the sacredness of the female body and its cycles.⁶⁴
   • Practices: Practices are diverse and often individualized, including meditation, ritual, spell work, connecting with nature and lunar cycles, celebrating seasonal festivals (often similar to the Wiccan Wheel of the Year), creative expression, dreamwork, and oracular practices.⁶⁴ Goddess Spirituality often overlaps significantly with feminist Wicca and other women’s spirituality movements.⁵³
5. Other Reconstructionist and Eclectic Paths:Beyond these larger currents, numerous other Pagan paths exist, often falling into reconstructionist or eclectic categories.
   • Reconstructionism: These paths aim for the most historically accurate revival possible of specific ancient pagan religions, based on careful study of archaeological, historical, and literary primary sources. Examples include:
     • Hellenismos (Hellenic Polytheism): Revival of ancient Greek religion.⁵⁰
     • Religio Romana (Roman Polytheism): Revival of ancient Roman religion.⁵⁰
     • Kemetism (Kemetic Orthodoxy/Reconstructionism): Revival of ancient Egyptian religion.⁵⁰
     • Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism (CR): Focuses on reviving pre-Christian Celtic traditions based on scholarly sources.
     • Slavic Native Faith (Rodnovery): Revival of pre-Christian Slavic religions.¹⁸ These traditions often emphasize cultural heritage alongside religious practice and may be wary of syncretism with unrelated paths.¹²
   • Eclecticism: Many Pagans do not adhere strictly to one tradition but create personalized spiritual paths by blending elements from multiple ancient and modern sources, often guided by personal experience and intuition.⁴ This approach values individual spiritual autonomy and creativity.

The active construction of identity is a hallmark of many modern Pagan paths, particularly reconstructionist ones like Heathenry and Druidry. Practitioners engage deeply with historical sources, archaeological findings, and folklore, not merely to replicate the past, but to adapt and re-contextualize ancient wisdom for contemporary life. This process involves scholarly rigor for some, and more intuitive or artistic interpretation for others, reflecting the diverse ways modern individuals connect with and draw meaning from these ancestral traditions. The very umbrella term “Paganism” or “Neopaganism” thus covers a wide, and sometimes internally contested, array of beliefs and practices, from those emphasizing strict historical adherence to those celebrating radical eclecticism and innovation.

V. Contemporary Paganism: Demographics, Community, and Global Presence

Modern Paganism, having re-emerged and significantly grown throughout the 20th and into the 21st century, now constitutes a diverse global religious minority. Understanding its current state requires examining its demographic spread, the varied ways its adherents form communities, its engagement with the digital world, and its interactions with broader societal issues.

A. Demographics and Global Distribution

Accurately determining the precise number of Pagans worldwide is challenging due to several factors. Census data in many countries, including the United States, does not typically ask for specific religious affiliation beyond broad categories, making it difficult to capture Pagan numbers directly.⁶⁶ Furthermore, the decentralized nature of many Pagan traditions, the prevalence of solitary practitioners, and a lingering social stigma in some regions that may lead individuals to be hesitant about openly identifying as Pagan, all contribute to the difficulty in obtaining exact figures.⁶⁶

Despite these challenges, estimates suggest a significant and growing population. Some sources estimate around 1 million Pagans in the U.S., with over 100,000 each in Canada, the U.K., and Australia.⁶⁶ A 2008 Pew Forum Religious Landscape Survey in the U.S. found that 0.4% of Americans (approximately 1.2 million people at the time) identified as “New Age,” Wiccan, or Pagan, though this figure did not distinguish clearly between these categories.⁶⁶ More recent estimates, such as the 2014 Pew Research Center’s Religious Landscapes Survey, placed Wiccans and Pagans at 0.3% of the total U.S. population (around 950,000 people).⁵⁰ Studies from the 1990s placed U.S. Neopagan numbers between 200,000 and 1 million.⁵⁰ The 2011 British census found approximately 78,566 individuals identifying under various Pagan categories (Wiccan, Heathen, Druid, etc.), a figure many scholars consider to be an underestimate.⁶⁷ Modern Pagan religions largely emerged in Europe and North America but now have followers globally, possibly numbering in the low millions.¹⁸ Wicca, for instance, is now practiced in countries like Mexico, Brazil, and India.⁶⁷

The demographic profile of the Pagan community is diverse. Pagans can be found across all genders, ethnicities, sexual orientations, and political persuasions.⁶⁶ Due to the generally open and welcoming nature of many Pagan paths, there may be a higher representation of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBTQ+) individuals compared to the mainstream population.⁶⁶ Pagans come from all walks of life and professions, including doctors, lawyers, teachers, artists, and tradespeople. While some Pagans lead outwardly conventional lives, many participate in alternative subcultures or express their values through careers in environmentalism, social justice, or holistic health.⁶⁶ Politically, while there is diversity, a general leaning towards the liberal side of the spectrum is often observed, with many Pagans involved in progressive social activism.⁶⁶ Some Pagan traditions, particularly certain ethnic nationalist forms of Heathenry found more commonly in Central and Eastern Europe, tend to be more socially conservative.¹⁸ The geographical hotspots remain largely in North America and Europe, but the global spread continues, facilitated by migration and the internet.

B. Community Structures: From Solitary Practitioners to Global Networks

Contemporary Paganism exhibits a wide spectrum of community structures, reflecting its diverse traditions and the individualistic nature of many of its paths. There is no single, centralized governing body or hierarchical authority that oversees all Pagan religions.⁵⁶

At one end of the spectrum are solitary practitioners. A significant and growing number of Pagans practice their faith alone, without formal affiliation to a group or coven.⁵⁶ Research by Helen A. Berger indicates a massive increase in solitary practitioners since 1990, with current estimates suggesting that three-quarters of Pagans self-define as solitary, a percentage even higher among those under 25.⁵⁶ The rise of solitary practice has been greatly facilitated by the availability of published materials, particularly books by authors like Scott Cunningham who made Wiccan practices accessible to individuals, and by the dissemination of information and resources via the internet.⁵⁶ Cunningham argued that self-initiation and solitary rituals are no less spiritually or magically powerful than those performed in groups, a revolutionary idea that empowered many to pursue their paths independently.⁵⁶

For those who prefer group practice, small, local groups are common. These are known by various names depending on the tradition, such as:

• Covens: Typically used in Wicca, traditionally consisting of up to thirteen members, often led by a High Priestess and/or High Priest. When a coven grows too large, it may “hive off” to form a new coven, with interconnected covens sometimes forming a “grove”.⁵⁷
• Groves: Often used in Druidry, referring to local worship or study groups.
• Kindreds, Hearths, or Garths: Terms commonly used in Heathenry for local groups or communities.⁵⁷
• Circles: A general term used across various Pagan paths for ritual or study groups. These small groups often have little formal ruling structure beyond their immediate leadership and emphasize experiential learning and communal ritual.⁵⁷

Beyond local groups, there are larger organizations and networks, often national or international in scope. These may be tradition-specific (e.g., Druid Orders like OBOD or ADF ⁵⁰, Heathen organizations like The Troth or the Ásatrú Folk Assembly ⁵⁰, Wiccan organizations like the Covenant of the Goddess ⁵⁰) or umbrella organizations that serve the broader Pagan community. Examples of umbrella organizations include EarthSpirit Community and Circle Sanctuary in the U.S., which offer retreats, public rituals, educational resources, and sometimes land for community events and Pagan burial sites.⁵⁶ The Pagan Federation, founded in 1971, operates internationally, particularly in Europe, to support Pagans, promote a positive profile for Paganism, and provide information to the media and official bodies.⁶⁸ These larger organizations often play a role in advocacy, interfaith dialogue, and providing resources for both solitary practitioners and groups.

The rise of solitary practice, fueled by accessible literature and the internet, represents a significant shift from the earlier, more secretive and group-oriented forms of Neopaganism like early Gardnerian Wicca. This highlights a dynamic tension within modern Paganism between structured, initiatory traditions and more individualistic, eclectic approaches.

C. The Digital Hearth: The Internet and Online Pagan Communities

The internet has profoundly impacted the development and expression of contemporary Paganism, serving as a “digital hearth” for information sharing, community building, and the evolution of practice. Its influence has been both democratizing and, at times, fragmenting.

The internet has vastly increased access to information about Paganism. Websites, blogs, forums, social media groups, and online archives provide a wealth of resources on various traditions, historical sources, ritual practices, and theological discussions.⁶⁸ This has been particularly empowering for solitary practitioners and those geographically isolated from established Pagan communities, allowing them to learn, connect, and develop their spiritual paths independently.⁵⁶ Online news outlets like The Wild Hunt provide dedicated news coverage and perspectives relevant to the global Pagan, Heathen, and polytheist communities, fostering a sense of shared awareness and discourse.⁶⁹ Organizations like The Pagan Federation also utilize their websites and social media to disseminate information, offer online access to publications (like Pagan Dawn), and host online events.⁶⁸

Online communities have flourished, offering spaces for Pagans to connect with like-minded individuals, share experiences, ask questions, and find support. Forums, social media groups (on platforms like Facebook, Reddit, Discord), and dedicated Pagan networking sites allow for the formation of virtual covens, groves, and kindreds, transcending geographical limitations. This has been crucial for individuals in areas where Paganism is less visible or accepted, or for those belonging to niche traditions.

The digital realm has also given rise to new forms of spiritual expression and practice, notably Technopaganism. This phenomenon, which gained traction in the 1990s, particularly in Californian cyberculture, involves the intersection of contemporary Paganism, shamanism, popular culture, and digital technology.⁷¹ Technopagans may see cyberspace itself as a ritual space or a plane of connection, and technological devices as potential tools for magic or communication with spiritual entities.⁷¹ Mark Pesce, a key figure, articulated the idea that computers can be sacred, embodying communication with the divine.⁷¹ While the initial wave of Technopaganism may have subsided, its influence persists, with many contemporary Pagans implicitly or explicitly incorporating digital tools into their practice, from using apps for divination or tracking astrological transits to conducting rituals via video conferencing. The online context is viewed by some as an organic environment for valid spiritual experiences, interacting with virtual entities like avatars and even algorithmic processes with an animistic ontology.⁷¹

However, the internet’s role is not without its complexities. The sheer volume of information can be overwhelming, and distinguishing credible sources from misinformation can be challenging for newcomers. The ease of online interaction can sometimes lead to superficial engagement or the formation of echo chambers. Moreover, while online communities provide valuable connections, they may not fully replace the embodied experience of in-person ritual and community for many practitioners. The internet has thus contributed to both the democratization and potential fragmentation of Pagan identity and practice, allowing for unprecedented individual autonomy while also posing challenges for cohesive community development and the transmission of established traditions.

D. Paganism and the Modern World: Environmentalism, Social Justice, and Interfaith Dialogue

Contemporary Paganism is not a faith practiced in isolation from the wider world; rather, many Pagans are deeply engaged with pressing modern issues, drawing upon their core beliefs to inform their ethics and actions. Key areas of engagement include environmentalism, social justice, and interfaith dialogue.

Environmentalism as Spiritual Practice:

A profound reverence for nature is a cornerstone of most Pagan paths.4 The Earth is often viewed as sacred, a living being, or the body of the Goddess/Great Spirit.65 This theological perspective naturally translates into a strong environmental ethic for many Pagans.73 Connecting with nature through rituals, meditation, and direct experience is an essential part of their spiritual practice, fostering a sense of interconnectedness with all living beings and the planet itself.72

This spiritual connection often motivates Pagans to become involved in environmental activism and stewardship.⁵⁵ Activities can range from personal lifestyle choices (such as sustainable living, organic gardening, composting, reducing consumption) to participation in direct action campaigns, advocating for conservation, and working to protect natural landscapes from exploitation or pollution.⁶¹ Some Pagans critique what they see as the anthropocentric and exploitative attitudes towards nature in dominant Western cultures, sometimes attributing these to the theological frameworks of Abrahamic religions that emphasize human “dominion over” nature.⁷³ However, others recognize messages of care and stewardship within these faiths as well, seeking common ground for collaboration on environmental issues.⁷³ Pagan apocalyptic and millenarian narratives often critique unsustainable practices and call for environmental stewardship, envisioning a future characterized by ecological balance and a deeper human connection with the natural world.⁵⁵

Engagement with Social Justice Issues:

Many Pagan traditions emphasize values such as equality, interconnectedness, personal responsibility, and justice, which often lead to engagement with broader social justice movements.4 Feminist thought has been particularly influential, especially within Wicca and Goddess Spirituality, leading to a focus on gender equality, challenging patriarchal structures, and empowering women.4 The Women’s International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell (WITCH), formed in 1968, for example, used elements of modern Paganism and theatrical protest for feminist social justice purposes.74

Pagan involvement extends to other areas of social justice, including LGBTQ+ rights (Pagan communities are often notably inclusive ⁶⁶), racial justice, and anti-oppression work. Some Pagan apocalyptic narratives challenge established power structures and advocate for alternative, more equitable and just societal organizations.⁵⁵ The ethical principle of “harm none” (from the Wiccan Rede) or similar concepts of avoiding harm and promoting well-being can be interpreted broadly to include social and ecological justice. However, like any diverse religious movement, the level and focus of social justice engagement can vary significantly among individuals and traditions. There are also internal challenges within Paganism itself regarding issues like racism and cultural appropriation that the community continues to grapple with.⁷⁵

Interfaith Dialogue and Engagement:

Recognizing their status as a religious minority and often facing misconceptions, many Pagan individuals and organizations actively participate in interfaith dialogue.76 The goals of such engagement include:

• Promoting Understanding and Dispelling Misconceptions: Interfaith activity allows Pagans to directly communicate their beliefs and practices, countering stereotypes and fostering accurate understanding among followers of other religions and the general public.⁷⁶
• Building Relationships and Alliances: Dialogue helps to build respectful relationships with other faith communities, facilitating collaboration on common concerns such as religious freedom, social justice, and environmental protection [¹³